Walking dynamics, user variability, and window size effects in FGO-based smartphone PDR+GNSS fusion

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dc.contributor.authorMagsi, Amjad Hussain
dc.contributor.authorDíez Blanco, Luis Enrique
dc.date.accessioned2026-02-20T15:26:28Z
dc.date.available2026-02-20T15:26:28Z
dc.date.issued2026-01-09
dc.date.updated2026-02-20T15:26:28Z
dc.description.abstractThe performance of smartphone-based pedestrian positioning strongly depends on the GNSS signal quality, the motion dynamics that influence PDR accuracy, and the way both sources of information are fused. While recent studies have shown the benefits of Factor Graph Optimization (FGO) for Pedestrian Dead Reckoning (PDR) Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) fusion, the interaction between human motion, PDR errors, and FGO window configuration has not been systematically examined. This work investigates how walking dynamics affect the optimal configuration of sliding-window FGO, and to what extent FGO mitigates motion-dependent PDR errors compared with the Kalman Filter (KF). Using data collected from ten pedestrians performing four motion types (slow walking, normal walking, jogging, and running), we analyze: (1) the relationship between walking speed and the FGO window size required to achieve stable positioning accuracy, and (2) the ability of FGO to suppress PDR outliers arising from motion irregularities across different users. The results show that a window size of around 10 poses offers the best overall balance between accuracy and computational load, providing substantial improvement over SWFGO with a 1-pose window and approaching the accuracy of batch FGO at a fraction of its cost. Increasing the window further to 30 poses yields only marginal accuracy gains while increasing computation, and this trend is consistent across all motion types. Additionally, FGO and SWFGO reduce PDR-induced outliers more effectively than KF across all users and motions, demonstrating improved robustness under gait variability and transient disturbances.en
dc.description.sponsorshipThis work has been supported in part by the Research Training Grants Programme of the University of Deusto, and in part by the Spanish Ministry of Science, Innovation and Universities through the projects REPNIN++ (RED2022- 134355-T) and AGINPLACE (PID2023-146254OA-C44)en
dc.identifier.citationMagsi, A. H., & Díez, L. E. (2026). Walking dynamics, user variability, and window size effects in FGO-based smartphone PDR+GNSS fusion. Sensors, 26(2). https://doi.org/10.3390/S26020431
dc.identifier.doi10.3390/S26020431
dc.identifier.eissn1424-8220
dc.identifier.urihttps://hdl.handle.net/20.500.14454/5185
dc.language.isoeng
dc.publisherMultidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (MDPI)
dc.rights© 2026 by the authors
dc.subject.otherFactor graph optimization
dc.subject.otherFusion
dc.subject.otherGNSS
dc.subject.otherKalman filter
dc.subject.otherPDR
dc.subject.otherSliding window
dc.subject.otherSmartphone
dc.titleWalking dynamics, user variability, and window size effects in FGO-based smartphone PDR+GNSS fusionen
dc.typejournal article
dcterms.accessRightsopen access
oaire.citation.issue2
oaire.citation.titleSensors
oaire.citation.volume26
oaire.licenseConditionhttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
oaire.versionVoR
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