DeustoTeka Examinando por Autor "Panadero, Ernesto"

Examinando por Autor "Panadero, Ernesto"

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Analysis of online rubric platforms: advancing toward erubrics
(Routledge, 2025) Panadero, Ernesto; Fernández Ortube, Alazne; Krebs, Rebecca; Roelle, Julian
Rubrics play a crucial role in shaping educational assessment, providing clear criteria for both teaching and learning. The advent of online rubric platforms has the potential to significantly enhance the effectiveness of rubrics in educational contexts, offering innovative features for assessment and feedback through the creation of erubrics. This study presents a comprehensive analysis of 19 online rubric platforms structured around five research questions (RQs) examining the general platform features, rubric design features, rubric implementation features, identifying the stronger online rubric platforms available, and investigating if the platforms support the creation and implementation of erubrics. Our analysis of the design features revealed varying levels of customisation and flexibility across platforms, crucial for effective assessment. Regarding implementation features, we found a mix of online and offline capabilities, with a limited number of platforms offering more advanced features (e.g. collaborative options). Through a detailed scoring system, we identify the platforms that lead innovation in design and implementation. Unfortunately, the vast majority of platforms do not support features for the creation of erubrics. We provide a detailed list of implementation recommendations for teachers, researchers, and platform designers (Appendix F)
A critical review of the arguments against the use of rubrics
(Elsevier Ltd., 2020-03-23) Panadero, Ernesto; Jonsson, Anders
Rubrics are widely used in classrooms at all educational levels across the globe, for both summative and formative purposes. Although the empirical support for the benefits of using rubrics has been steadily growing, so have the criticisms. The aim of this review is to explore the concerns and limitations of using rubrics as proposed by the critics, as well as the empirical evidence for their claims. Criticisms are then contrasted with findings from studies reporting empirical evidence in the opposite direction (i.e. supporting the use of rubrics). A total of 27 publications were identified, and 93 excerpts were extracted, after a detailed content analysis. The criticisms were organized around six broad themes. One of the main findings is that the empirical evidence behind criticisms is, with only a few exceptions, neither direct nor strong. On the contrary, several critics refer to anecdotal evidence and/or personal experiences, which have limited value as scientific evidence. Another finding is that a number of critics make claims about rubrics with a narrow conceptualization of rubrics in mind. One prevalent assumption is that rubrics are only used for high stakes testing and/or other summative assessment situations. Based on these findings, we advocate a more pragmatic approach to rubrics, where potential limitations of rubrics are investigated empirically and decisions are based on scientific data.
Deep learning self-regulation strategies: validation of a situational model and its questionnaire
(Universidad del País Vasco = Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea, Departamento de Psicodidáctica, 2021-01) Panadero, Ernesto ; Alonso Tapia, Jesús ; García-Pérez, Daniel; Fraile Ruiz, Juan; Sánchez Galán, José Manuel; Pardo García, Rodrigo
Measuring self-regulated learning is crucial to improve our educational interventions. Self-report has been the major data collection method and a number of questionnaires exist. Importantly, the vast majority of the questionnaires are constructed from general theoretical models. Our aim was to develop a model and its questionnaire –i.e. Deep Learning Strategies questionnaire- to investigate how students regulate their learning strategies in more realistic learning situations. Four scales were created: (1) Basic learning self-regulation strategies; (2) Visual elaboration and summarizing strategies; (3) Deep information processing strategies; and (4) Social learning self-regulation strategies. A total of 601 higher education students formed the sample. We analyzed, first, the internal validity of the questionnaire. Three structural models were tested: (M1) mono-factor; (M2) scales correlate among them freely, and (M3) the scales are indicators of a general construct. The latter model showed a slight better fit. Additionally, a path analysis was carried out to study the degree in which the use of the Deep learning strategies depends on personal factors and is associated to performance. It was found that the use depends directly and positively on learning goal orientation, on the self-messages defining the self-regulation style of emotion and motivation focused on learning, and on effort. Besides, these two last variables convey the effect of self-efficacy that, at the same time, affects effort. Academic performance, depends positively on effort but negatively to the use of deep learning strategies. It is hypothesized this negative relationship is due to the method of measurement of academic performance.
Effects of rubrics on academic performance, self-regulated learning, and self-efficacy: a meta-analytic review
(Springer, 2023-12-07) Panadero, Ernesto; Jonsson, Anders; Pinedo Castillo, Leire ; Fernández Castilla, Belén
Rubrics are widely used as instructional and learning instrument. Though they have been claimed to have positive effects on students’ learning, these effects have not been meta-analyzed. Our aim was to synthesize the effects of rubrics on academic performance, self-regulated learning, and self-efficacy. The moderator effect of the following variables was also investigated: year of publication, gender, mean age, educational level, type of educational level (compulsory vs. higher education), number of sessions, number of assessment criteria, number of performance levels, use of self and peer assessment, research design, and empirical quality of the study. Standardized mean differences (for the three outcomes) and standardized mean changes (SMC; for academic performance) were calculated from the retrieved studies. After correcting for publication bias, a moderate and positive effect was found in favor of rubrics on academic performance (g = 0.45, k = 21, m = 54, 95% CI [0.312, 0.831]; SMC = 0.38, 95% CI [0.02, 0.75], k = 12, m = 30), whereas a small pooled effect was observed for self-regulated learning (g = 0.23, k = 5, m = 17, 95% CI [-0.15, 0.60]) and for self-efficacy (g = 0.18, k = 3, m = 5, 95% CI [-0.81, 0.91]). Most of the moderator variables were not significant. Importantly, to improve the quality of future reports on the effects of rubrics, we provide an instrument to be filled out for rubric scholars in forthcoming studies.
Exploring formative assessment and co-regulation in kindergarten through interviews and direct observation
(Frontiers Media S.A., 2021-09-24) Braund, Heather; DeLuca, Christopher; Panadero, Ernesto; Cheng, Liying
Formative assessment practices have been theoretically connected to the development of self-regulation with mounting empirical evidence. Co-regulation is the process whereby a more capable individual (e.g., teacher or peer) attunes the behaviours, emotions, or cognitive processes of an individual (a student) to align with goals or expectations and is being recognized as a strategy for developing self-regulation. Formative assessment practices may facilitate co-regulation, however, much of the literature has focused on older student populations. This phenomenological study explored the relationship between formative assessment and co-regulation in eight Kindergarten classrooms. Eight Kindergarten teachers and four Early Childhood Educators (ECE) completed semi-structured interviews in 2019 during two time periods with each participant completing two interviews. To supplement the interviews, 56 h of classroom observations were completed in each classroom, totaling 448 h of observations across eight classrooms. Interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim. Qualitative data were analyzed thematically. Four themes emerged: 1) Authentic assessment and self-regulation practices, 2) Feedback as foundational, 3) Formative assessment and co-regulation have shared purposes, and 4) Connections between classroom assessment and co-regulation. Participants described their classroom assessment and self-regulation practices as authentic and natural for students while also providing examples of their interactions with students as a form of co-regulation. Feedback was articulated as foundational to both classroom assessment and co-regulation. Participants illustrated examples of feedback from peers (including through modified peer-assessment). Shared purposes between formative assessment and co-regulation placed students at the centre of the learning process, encouraging agentic behaviours, and scaffolding student thinking. The final theme underlined the need to broaden conceptualizations of assessment in Kindergarten. Findings suggested student agency as the bridge between classroom assessment and co-regulation, and a bidirectional, mutually supportive, relationship between formative assessment and co-regulation.
How dominant language influences rubric reading and task performance: insights from eye-tracking research
(Springer Science and Business Media B.V., 2025-06) Panadero, Ernesto; Delgado, Pablo; Barrenetxea Mínguez, Lucía; Zamorano Sande, David; Pinedo Castillo, Leire; Fernández Ortube, Alazne
The students’ dominant language might influence how they use and process a rubric and its subsequent effect on task performance. However, our knowledge about these effects is limited. This study investigates how the dominant language of students is associated with their rubric reading patterns and their task performance in a written landscape analysis in Spanish. Participants were 80 higher education students with different dominant language (Spanish-dominant speakers, SDS; Basque-Spanish speakers, BSS) from six undergraduate programmes. We employed a randomized controlled trial in which participants used a rubric to guide their performance in a written analysis of a landscape. Participants were randomly assigned to two conditions based on the rubric order: (1) lowest to highest performance level vs (2) highest to lowest performance level. We analyzed eye-tracking data to explore reading patterns (i.e., fixation times on the rubric cells and gaze transitions between the rubric and the picture of the landscape), task performance (i.e., written landscape analysis), and self-reported cognitive load. Spanish-dominant speakers exhibited more adaptive reading patterns and performed better in the written landscape analysis with the highest-lowest performance level (PL) order rubric, compared to Basque-Spanish speakers. Additionally, fixation time on highest PL and gaze transitions between highest PL and the landscape picture were positively correlated with task performance. Our research highlights the importance of considering dominant language in rubric design and implementation, showing that strategic rubric design can enhance student performance, particularly in linguistically diverse educational settings
Impact of displaying grades vs. not displaying grades on academic performance and emotional outcomes while delivering feedback comments: a longitudinal study
(Routledge, 2025) Panadero, Ernesto; Sánchez Iglesias, Iván
This study investigates the impact of displaying grades versus not displaying grades on student performance and emotions in secondary education, while keeping feedback comments constant. Using a longitudinal design, we examined intra-individual changes in performance and emotional responses among 99 students across four classroom groups as they experienced phases of grade display and non-display. Contrary to the notion of grades solely as detrimental, our findings reveal a complex relationship. Initially, grade display decreased performance and evoked negative emotions, but these effects dissipated over time, suggesting student adaptation. Our study highlights the significant impact of feedback comments, suggesting their importance independent of grades. These results call for a sophisticated understanding of grading practices, emphasizing longitudinal research to capture the evolving effects of grades and feedback. Practical implications for educators include maintaining stable grading practices and providing preparatory guidance to mitigate initial negative impacts, contributing to optimizing educational assessment strategies
Putting excellence first: how rubric performance level order and feedback type influence students’ reading patterns and task performance
(Elsevier Ltd, 2025-10-01) Panadero, Ernesto ; Delgado Herrera, Pablo ; Zamorano Sande, David; Pinedo Castillo, Leire ; Fernández Ortube, Alazne ; Barrenetxea Mínguez, Lucía
Rubrics are structured assessment tools that describe criteria and levels of performance, helping students understand expectations and improve their work. They are widely used to support learning in educational settings. However, little is known about how students process rubrics in real time, and empirical research on rubric design and feedback effects is limited. Aim: This study examines how university students engage with rubrics during two landscape analysis tasks, focusing on two variables: the order of performance levels (highest first vs. last) and the type of feedback received (no feedback [control], process-based, product-based, or rubric-based). By combining eye-tracking and think-aloud protocols, the study offers a multimodal perspective on students’ visual attention and cognitive engagement. Sample: Eighty undergraduate students from six degree programs were randomly assigned to one of four feedback conditions. Methods: A randomized controlled trial was conducted. Eye-tracking data—fixation times, number of visits, and gaze transitions—and verbal data from think-aloud protocols were collected across task phases. Integrating these process-tracing methods enabled detailed analysis of how students interacted with the rubric and how engagement related to performance. Results: Students focused primarily on the highest performance level, especially when it appeared first. Visual attention to this level predicted task performance; verbal references did not. Rubric-based feedback increased visual alignment between rubric and task, while process-based feedback led to the strongest performance gains. Conclusion: Rubric design and feedback type significantly influence student engagement and performance. Eye-tracking and think-aloud data provide complementary insights, reinforcing rubrics’ instructional value when paired with targeted feedback.
Putting self-regulated learning in context: integrating self-, co-, and socially shared regulation of learning
(John Wiley and Sons, Inc, 2022-01) Bransen, Derk ; Govaerts, Marjan; Panadero, Ernesto ; Sluijsmans, Dominique; Driessen, Erik W.
Processes involved in the regulation of learning have been researched for decades, because of its impact on academic and workplace performance. In fact, self-regulated learning is the focus of countless studies in health professions education and higher education in general. While we will always need competent individuals who are able to regulate their own learning, developments in healthcare require a shift from a focus on the individual to the collective: collaboration within and between healthcare teams is at the heart of high-quality patient care. Concepts of collaborative learning and collective competence challenge commonly held conceptualisations of regulatory learning and call for a focus on the social embeddedness of regulatory learning and processes regulating the learning of the collective. Therefore, this article questions the alignment of current conceptualisations of regulation of learning with demands for collaboration in current healthcare. We explore different conceptualisations of regulation of learning (self-, co-, and socially shared regulation of learning), and elaborate on how the integration of these conceptualisations adds to our understanding of regulatory learning in healthcare settings. Building on these insights, we furthermore suggest ways forward for research and educational practice.
A review of feedback models and typologies: towards an integrative model of feedback elements
(Elsevier Ltd, 2022-02) Panadero, Ernesto ; Lipnevich, Anastasiya A.
A number of models has been proposed to describe various types of feedback along with mechanisms through which feedback may improve student performance and learning. We selected fourteen most prominent models, which we discussed in two complementary reviews. In the first part (Lipnevich & Panadero, 2021) we described the models, feedback definitions, and the empirical evidence supporting them, whereas in the present publication, we analyzed and compared the fourteen models with the goal to classify and integrate shared elements into a new comprehensive model. As a result of our synthesis, we offered an expanded typology of feedback and a classification of models into five thematic areas: descriptive, internal processing, interactional, pedagogical, and students characteristics. We concluded with an Integrative Model of Feedback Elements that includes five components: Message, Implementation, Student, Context, and Agents (MISCA). We described each element and relations among them, offering future directions for theory and practice.
A self-feedback model (SEFEMO): secondary and higher education students’ self-assessment profiles
(Routledge, 2024) Panadero, Ernesto; Fernández Ruiz, Javier; Pinedo Castillo, Leire; Sánchez Iglesias, Iván; García-Pérez, Daniel
While self-assessment is a widely explored area in educational research, our understanding of how students assess themselves, or in other words, generate self-feedback, is quite limited. Self-assessment process has been a black box that recent research is trying to open. This study explored and integrated two data collections (secondary and higher education) that investigated students’ real actions while self-assessing, aiming to disentangle self-assessment into more precise actions. Our goal was to identify self-assessment processes and profiles to better understand what happens when students self-assess and to design and implement better interventions. By combining such data, we were able to explore the differences between secondary and higher education students, the effects of external feedback on self-assessment, and to propose a model of ideal self-assessment (SEFEMO). Using think-aloud protocols, direct observation and self-reported data, we identified six main actions (read, recall, compare, rate, assess, and redo) and four self-assessment profiles. In general, secondary and higher education students showed the same actions and very similar profiles. External feedback had a negative effect on the self-assessment actions except for the less advanced self-assessors. Based on data from more than 500 self-assessment performances, we propose a model of self-feedback.
Self-regulated learning interventions for pre-service teachers: a systematic review
(Springer, 2024-09-30) Fernández Ortube, Alazne; Panadero, Ernesto; Dignath, Charlotte
Self-regulated learning (SRL) is a key competence for pre-service teachers to develop, both for their own activities as learners and for their future activities as teachers. Therefore, it is crucial to understand how pre-service teachers can be supported in acquiring SRL competence in their initial training. To reach this aim, we conducted a systematic review of SRL interventions for pre-service teachers. Sixty-six intervention studies fulfilled the inclusion criteria. We explored three aspects of those SRL interventions, and how they moderate the interventions’ effectiveness: (1) the theoretical and practical underpinnings of SRL, (2) whether the intervention aimed to promote SRL learning and/or teaching of SRL, and (3) the intervention’s pedagogical characteristics and content related to the SRL professional competences. We found that the most effective SRL interventions (1) focused the training on one or two SRL areas (especially cognition and metacognition); (2) when targeted both, SRL learning and teaching of SRL, pre-service teachers’ SRL skills improved as well as their pedagogical skills; and (3) addressed direct and implicit SRL instruction, inside which self-assessment of learning and teaching practices appear as an effective pedagogical method. We derive implications from our findings for designing effective SRL interventions for prospective teachers.
The self-regulation for learning online (SRL-O) questionnaire
(Springer, 2023-04) Broadbent, Jaclyn; Panadero, Ernesto; Lodge, J.M.; Fuller-Tyszkiewicz, M.
The Self-Regulation for Learning Online (SRL-O) questionnaire was developed to encompass the breadth of motivational beliefs and learning strategies that are often used in online and/or blended learning contexts. No current measure meets all these needs. This study used two non-duplicate samples to provide evidence of the psychometric properties of SRL-O using exploratory factor analyses (sample 1, n = 313), and confirmatory factor analyses, convergent and content validity and reliability (sample 2, n = 321). The SRL-O has a 10-factor structure, made up of (1) online self-efficacy, (2) online intrinsic motivation, (3) online extrinsic motivation, (4) online negative achievement emotion, (5) planning and time management, (6) metacognition, (7) study environment, (8) online effort regulation, (9) online social support, and (10) online task strategies. The SRL-O was also found to have two superordinate factors (motivational beliefs and learning strategies). The SRL-O was demonstrated to be a psychometrically sound measure of online SRL for learners studying in online and blended learning contexts. There is no other online self-regulated learning questionnaire that currently covers such a wide range of motivational beliefs and learning strategies.
Shaping the assessors of tomorrow: how practicum experiences develop assessment literacy in secondary education pre-service teachers
(Elsevier Ltd, 2024-12) Pardo García, Rodrigo; García-Pérez, Daniel; Panadero, Ernesto
This study analyzes the impact of the supervised practicum on the assessment conceptions and practices of pre-service secondary education teachers, using the theoretical rationale of assessment literacy. We conducted a qualitative study with eighteen pre-service physical education teachers in Spain. The results revealed the difficulties and the variety of experiences the participants encountered during the practicum in relation to assessment. Student accountability and improving learning and teaching were the most common assessment conceptions, although the assessment tasks designed by the participants were not entirely formative. In general, the practicum experience reaffirmed their previous ideas on formative assessment.
A systematic review of peer assessment design elements
(Springer, 2023-02-09) Alqassab, Maryam; Strijbos, Jan‑Willem; Panadero, Ernesto; Fernández Ruiz, Javier ; Warrens, Matthijs; To, Jessica
The growing number of peer assessment studies in the last decades created diverse design options for researchers and teachers to implement peer assessment. However, it is still unknown if there are more commonly used peer assessment formats and design elements that could be considered when designing peer assessment activities in educational contexts. This systematic review aims to determine the diversity of peer assessment designs and practices in research studies. A literature search was performed in the electronic databases PsycINFO, PsycARTICLES, Web of Science Core Collection, Medline, ERIC, Academic Search Premier, and EconLit. Using data from 449 research studies (derived from 424 peer-reviewed articles), design differences were investigated for subject domains, assessment purposes, objects, outcomes, and moderators/mediators. Arts and humanities was the most frequent subject domain in the reviewed studies, and two-third of the studies had a formative purpose of assessment. The most used object of assessment was written assessment, and beliefs and perceptions were the most investigated outcomes. Gender topped the list of the investigated moderators/mediators of peer assessment. Latent class analysis of 27 peer assessment design elements revealed a five-class solution reflecting latent patterns that best describe the variability in peer assessment designs (i.e. prototypical peer assessment designs). Only ten design elements significantly contributed to these patterns with an associated effect size R2 ranging from.204 to.880, indicating that peer assessment designs in research studies are not as diverse as they theoretically can be.
A systematic review on factors influencing teachers’ intentions and implementations regarding formative assessment
(Routledge, 2021-02-15) Yan, Zi; Li, Ziqi; Panadero, Ernesto ; Yang, Min; Yang, Lan; Lao, Hongling
Teachers are playing crucial roles in the implementation of formative assessment, which has been widely recognised as a valuable strategy in enhancing students’ learning outcomes. However, systematic analysis on factors that might facilitate or hinder teachers’ intentions and implementations regarding formative assessment is scarce. This review covers 52 eligible studies and identifies factors, which have been categorised into personal and contextual factors, that influence teachers’ intentions and implementations regarding formative assessment. The results of this review may benefit researchers, school leaders, and policy makers when they aspire to facilitate the implementation of formative assessment.
A systematic review on students’ perceptions of self-assessment: usefulness and factors influencing implementation
(Springer, 2023-08-04) Yan, Zi; Panadero, Ernesto; Wang, Xiang; Zhan, Ying
Students are the central agent in self-assessment; therefore, their perceptions are crucial for successful self-assessment. Despite the increasing number of empirical studies exploring how students perceive self-assessment, systematic reviews synthesising students’ perceptions of self-assessment and relating them to self-assessment implementation are scarce. This review covered 44 eligible studies and synthesised findings related to two key aspects of students’ perceptions of self-assessment: (1) usefulness of self-assessment; and (2) factors influencing their implementation of self-assessment. The results revealed inconclusive findings regarding students’ perceived usefulness of self-assessment. Although most studies reported a generally positive perception of self-assessment among students, some studies revealed students’ skepticism about its usefulness. Usefulness was influenced by specific individual factors (i.e., gender, age, and educational level) and instructional factors (i.e., external feedback, use of instruments, and self-assessment purpose). Additionally, implementation was influenced by specific individual factors (i.e., perceived usefulness, affective attitude, self-efficacy, important others, and psychological safety) and instructional factors (i.e., practice and training, external feedback, use of instruments, and environmental support). The findings of this review contribute to a better understanding of students’ perceptions of self-assessment and shed light on the design and implementation of meaningful self-assessment activities that cater to students’ learning needs.
Teachers’ well-being, emotions, and motivation during emergency remote teaching due to COVID-19
(Frontiers Media S.A., 2022-03-28) Panadero, Ernesto; Fraile Ruiz, Juan; Pinedo Castillo, Leire; Rodríguez Hernández, Carlos Felipe; Balerdi Eizmendi, Eneko; Díez Ruiz, Fernando
This study explores the effects of the shift to emergency remote teaching (ERT) on teachers’ levels of well-being, emotions, and motivation. A total of 936 Spanish teachers participated in this nationwide survey from all educational levels, thus allowing comparison among levels, which is a novelty and strength of our study. Four aspects were explored: (1) instructional adaptation to ERT; (2) well-being changes and the main challenges in this regard; (3) changes in emotions; and (4) changes in motivation and the main factors. Importantly, we explored a number of teacher characteristics (e.g., gender, age) for the three last aspects. Our results show that teachers felt the impact of ERT on their well-being, emotions, and motivation. Additionally, female teachers, teachers with students of low socioeconomic status (SES), in public schools, and primary and secondary teachers were the most affected groups. This indicates that the impact of ERT differed and some populations of teachers are more at risk of suffering burnout because of ERT.
Toward a paradigm shift in feedback research: five further steps influenced by self-regulated learning theory
(Routledge, 2023-07-07) Panadero, Ernesto
As the articles in this special issue on “Psychological Perspectives on the Effects and Effectiveness of Assessment Feedback” have shown, feedback is a key factor in education. Although there exists a substantial body of research on the topic, it is imperative to continue advancing the field. My aim is to outline five steps to solidify the potential paradigm shift that the feedback field may already be experiencing, while incorporating the insights gleaned from the articles within this special issue. Firstly, there is a need to develop new models that thoroughly explore and operationalize the intricacies of the feedback phenomenon. Secondly, it is essential to conceptualize feedback as a dynamic process and collect data that directly investigates this process. Thirdly, it would be advantageous to leverage insights from the self-regulated learning field, which has made significant strides in advancing measurement methods applicable to feedback research. Fourthly, employing multimodal methods can enrich our comprehension of the multifaceted nature of the feedback process. Lastly, placing the feedback agent at the core of the feedback process, with particular attention to individual differences, is of utmost importance.
Tracking self-regulated learning in action: how individual differences shape positive and negative regulation across three types of tasks
(Elsevier Ltd, 2025) Panadero, Ernesto ; Fernández Ortube, Alazne; Zamorano Sande, David ; Pinedo Castillo, Leire ; Sánchez Iglesias, Iván ; Barrenetxea Mínguez, Lucía
Self-regulated learning (SRL) is essential for academic success yet few studies have explored how individual-level variables (e.g., prior academic achievement, self-reported SRL skills) relate to both adaptive (positive) and maladaptive (negative) SRL behaviors across different types of tasks. This study investigated the extent to which self-reported SRL skills and prior academic achievement predict both positive and negative SRL behaviors captured through think-aloud protocols, as well as task performance, across three cognitively distinct academic tasks (reading, oral analysis, and written analysis) within a repeated-measures design. Results showed that higher self-reported positive SRL and prior academic achievement predicted greater use of positive SRL strategies and better performance, whereas negative SRL behaviors appeared more sensitive to task demands than to individual traits. These findings highlight the value of distinguishing between positive and negative SRL and of integrating self-report and process data to better understand the dynamics of SRL and inform targeted educational interventions. Educational relevance statement: This paper is educationally relevant because it shows that learning strategies should adapt to different tasks and stages providing evidence that self-regulated learning is context-dependent and dynamic, varying across tasks and individuals. Its findings inform the design of more responsive pedagogical interventions and valid assessment tools that capture students’ regulation processes in real learning contexts, emphasizing the role of prior achievement and strategy use in adaptive regulation.

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